Introduction: Origins and Early Development of Ballet
Ballet emerged as a distinct theatrical dance form in the courts of Renaissance Italy and France during the 15th–16th centuries. The very term ballet is derived from the Italian ballare (“to dance”), reflecting its Italian Renaissance roots. Italian noble courts featured elaborate dance spectacles as part of celebratory entertainments, blending dance with music, poetry, and pageantry. A seminal moment came in 1581 at the French court of Catherine de’ Medici (originally of Italy), when the Ballet Comique de la Reine was performed, often cited as the first true ballet combining coherent drama with dance. This lavish court production, choreographed by Balthasar de Beaujoyeux for a royal wedding, spanned over five hours and integrated mythological themes to glorify the royal patronage. Its success established the model of the ballet de cour (court ballet) as a form of political and artistic display in European courts.
In these early ballets, aristocrats themselves often participated as dancers, with the art serving both as court entertainment and a tool of political symbolism. By the early 17th century, ballet in France had been transformed by the influence of King Louis XIV, who was an avid dancer and patron of the art. Louis XIV recognized ballet’s potential to project the image of an absolute monarch: he famously performed as the sun god Apollo in Le Ballet de la Nuit (1653), reinforcing his image as the “Sun King”. Through such performances and patronage, Louis XIV elevated ballet from a courtly amusement to a codified art. In 1661, he established the Académie Royale de Danse in Paris, a professional organization to formalize dance training and choreography. This led to the development of a structured curriculum (danse d’école), including the codification of the five positions of the feet – the foundational vocabulary of classical ballet technique. By 1681, the Paris Académie had produced the first professional female dancer, Mlle. La Fontaine marked ballet’s evolution from an amateur court pastime (performed largely by male courtiers) into a professional theatrical art with both male and female performers. Notably, a 1588 treatise, Orchésographie, by Thoinot Arbeau had earlier documented the principle of turnout (outward rotation of the legs) in Renaissance dance. A century later, the full articulation of turnout and the five positions in the published notations of Raoul-Auger Feuillet (1700) and others heralded the fully formed classical technique. Thus, by the end of the 17th century, ballet in France had defined its basic technique and institutional structure, setting the stage for its further artistic development.
Ballet in France: From Court Spectacle to Classical Art
France was the cradle of ballet’s professionalization and aesthetic refinement in the 17th and 18th centuries. Under Louis XIV’s patronage, the ballet de cour flourished as a form of political theatre: these ballets were often allegories glorifying the state or monarch, with sumptuous costumes and entrées (dance divertissements) unified by a loose narrative theme. The emphasis was on elegance, geometric group formations, and etiquette, mirroring the court’s ideals. As ballet moved from the palace ballroom to the proscenium stage, it began to develop independent artistic aims. Music, once integral to court ballets, was in some cases deemphasized or separated, allowing dance to stand as an art in its own right. In 1669, the Académie Royale de Musique (Paris Opéra) was founded, eventually incorporating the Royal Dance Academy; this gave ballet a permanent public theater. By the early 18th century, the center of ballet activity was the Paris Opéra, where the first generation of professional ballet masters and ballerinas emerged.
The 18th century in France saw ballet’s stylistic evolution accelerate, driven by the Siècle des Lumières (Enlightenment) ideals and new artistic voices. Ballet’s leading theorists and choreographers began to advocate for greater dramatic coherence and emotional expression in dance. A pivotal figure was Jean-Georges Noverre, a French ballet master whose treatise Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets (1760) called for reform of ballet into a serious dramatic art. Noverre decried the overemphasis on ornamental technique and artificial costumes; he argued that ballet should tell a story or express genuine emotion (his concept of ballet d’action), with movements tailored to character and narrative. His ideas influenced ballet productions across Europe, encouraging choreographers to replace the patchwork of unrelated dance divertissements with cohesive plots and expressive choreography. This shift toward the dramatic was foreshadowed by earlier innovators like John Weaver in England, but Noverre’s influence in France was decisive. By the late 18th century, ballets on the Paris stage (often called opéra-ballets when including sung portions) balanced technical display with mime and storytelling. For example, the works of Gasparo Angiolini in Vienna and Jean Dauberval (creator of La Fille Mal Gardée, 1789) in Bordeaux applied these principles, humanizing ballet’s themes and characters. The sociopolitical upheavals of the French Revolution (1789) also impacted ballet’s content and organization. Mythological and aristocratic subjects gave way to more egalitarian or nationalistic themes, and the Paris Opéra (now a state institution) underwent reforms that opened training to broader sections of society. Male dancers—previously dominant in court ballets—found their roles transformed in this era, and female dancers gained increasing prominence on stage.
By the 1830s, France entered the epoch of the Romantic ballet, a period often considered the first golden age of ballet. The Romantic movement in art and literature, with its emphasis on emotion, fantasy, and the supernatural, profoundly influenced French ballet aesthetics. The landmark ballet La Sylphide premiered in Paris in 1832, choreographed by Filippo Taglioni and starring his daughter Marie Taglioni. It introduced the quintessential Romantic image: the sylph, an otherworldly winged fairy maiden who epitomized idealized femininity and unattainable love. Marie Taglioni’s performance (aided by her innovative use of dancing en pointe on the tips of her toes) created the illusion of ethereal weightlessness and grace, thrilling audiences. The success of La Sylphide in Paris ushered in a proliferation of ballets dominated by spiritual or supernatural female characters – Willis (ghostly virgins) in Giselle (Paris, 1841), water nymphs, and enchanted sylphs – often depicted in the all-white ballet blanc scenes that became a hallmark of the Romantic style. In these productions, ballerinas in white tulle tutus embodied fragile, transcendent beings, supported by a corps de ballet of identically dressed “spirits” in moonlit forest or ethereal settings. This era elevated the ballerina to unprecedented stardom: figures such as Marie Taglioni, Carlotta Grisi, Fanny Elssler, and Fanny Cerrito became international celebrities, admired for their artistry and virtuosity.
However, the Romantic era also reflected societal attitudes towards gender and the role of the performer. While ballerinas were idealized (and often objectified) as muses both on and off stage, the male danseur’s role was diminished in Paris, frequently reduced to partnering and mime, with some productions even featuring women (en travesti) dancing men’s roles to avoid diverting focus from the ballerina. This “feminization” of ballet in Paris was not universal across Europe (as discussed below, other regions maintained a stronger male tradition), but it marked French ballet until the latter 19th century. After the 1840s, French ballet entered a decline; by the 1850s–60s, the Paris Opéra’s innovation waned, and audiences lost interest in ballet in favor of opera. The last great French Romantic ballet was Coppélia (1870, choreographed by Arthur Saint-Léon), which already showed a shift toward more lighthearted, folk-inspired storytelling and hinted at the classical revival that would take place elsewhere. Nonetheless, France’s contributions – the technical foundation, the dramatic ballet d’action, and the Romantic ballet’s poetic imagery – left an indelible mark on the art. The Paris Opera Ballet, as the direct successor of the Royal Academy, remained a leading institution, preserving the French ballet heritage and training (the Paris Opera Ballet School produced many 19th-century dancers and continues to be a key international ballet school).
Ballet in Italy: Renaissance Birth and 19th-Century Resurgence
Italy is the birthplace of ballet’s earliest forms, though for much of ballet history, Italy and France were interwoven in their development. In the Renaissance courts of 15th-century Italy, aristocratic wedding festivities often included dancing interludes called balletti, featuring patterned floor formations and theatrical storytelling elements. It was Italian dancing masters such as Domenico da Piacenza and Fabritio Caroso who first wrote treatises on dance in the 1400s–1500s, laying the groundwork for later codification. Italian influence spread to France, particularly through Catherine de’ Medici’s patronage of dance after she became Queen of France – her Italian court musicians and choreographers helped create the early ballets de cour. Thus, the “global overview” of ballet’s origins is fundamentally an Italo-French story.
After the Renaissance, Italy’s prominence in ballet was somewhat eclipsed by France’s dominance in the 17th–18th centuries. Yet, Italian artists continued to play pivotal roles in European ballet. During the 18th century, many Italian dancers and choreographers found success abroad: for example, Gasparo Angiolini and Giovanni Gallini were influential in Vienna and London, respectively. The Italian ballet tradition emphasized virtuoso technique – Italian dancers were reputed for brilliant footwork and athletic beats – and this technical excellence became Italy’s trademark contribution. By the early 19th century, Italy experienced its own ballet boom, parallel to (and influenced by) the French Romantic movement. Notably, Italy produced one of ballet’s great theorist-pedagogues, Carlo Blasis. In his treatise Traité élémentaire, théorique et pratique de l’art de la danse (1820) and The Code of Terpsichore (1830), Blasis codified classical ballet technique and pedagogy, including a detailed analysis of body alignment, turnout, jumps, and spins. Blasis’s work (based on his teaching at La Scala in Milan) disseminated a rigorous methodology for training dancers. He also emphasized the importance of the dancer’s physical conditioning, introducing systematic exercises, the concept of the “attitude” pose (inspired by a famous statue of Mercury), and the idea of the 180-degree turnout as a technical ideal. His teachings spread internationally and heavily influenced later Russian training.
Italian ballet in the mid-19th century also thrived in the form of ballo grande – large-scale dramatic ballets often set to Italian opera-house conventions. Choreographers like Salvatore Viganò in Milan created “coreodrammi” (dance dramas) in the early 1800s, integrating dance with opera and mime. After the Romantic era’s apogee in Paris, Italian ballet stages welcomed many of the same works and stars. For instance, the great Danish choreographer August Bournonville staged Napoli (1842) and other works in Italy, and Fanny Elssler and other ballerinas toured Italian opera houses, bringing Romantic ballets to Italian audiences. Italy also contributed prominently to ballet music: Cesare Pugni, a prolific 19th-century composer, wrote scores for ballets in London, Paris, and especially St. Petersburg (becoming the resident composer for many of Petipa’s ballets).
By the late 19th century, Italy reasserted itself as a center for producing elite ballet talent, particularly through its exceptional training system. A lineage of Italian virtuosi – exemplified by Pierina Legnani, Carlotta Brianza, Enrico Cecchetti, and others – had an enormous impact abroad. Pierina Legnani astonished audiences at the Mariinsky Theater in St. Petersburg with her 32 fouetté turns in Swan Lake (1895) and was named prima ballerina assoluta. Enrico Cecchetti, an Italian from a famous dancing family, became one of the era’s greatest male dancers and later the leading teacher at the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg. Cecchetti distilled the Italian teaching tradition (notably Blasis’s principles) into a systematic method, the Cecchetti Method, which stressed a scientific approach to turnout, coordination, and virtuosity. After returning to Italy and then moving to London, Cecchetti taught a generation of 20th-century dancers and helped spread Italian pedagogical influence worldwide. Italian-trained dancers were known for their bravura technique – strong jumps, multiple pirouettes, and fast footwork – which injected fresh energy into the Russian and other schools in the late 19th century. Major Italian theaters like La Scala in Milan maintained ballet companies (often attached to opera companies) and schools, although it was common for Italian dancers to seek employment in Paris, London, or St. Petersburg, where ballet opportunities were greater. In summary, Italy’s role in ballet history spans from its initial creation of the art in Renaissance courts, to crucial contributions in classical technique and pedagogy, to supplying star performers and teachers who propelled ballet’s evolution across borders.
Ballet in Russia: Imperial Grandeur, Revolution, and Legacy
Russia’s engagement with ballet began in the 18th century and grew into a love affair that would profoundly shape the art form. Ballet was first imported to the Russian Imperial court in the early 1700s, during the westernizing reign of Peter the Great and his successors. Empress Anna Ivanovna invited the French ballet master Jean-Baptiste Landé to St. Petersburg in the 1730s, where he founded the first ballet school in 1738 (the direct predecessor of today’s Vaganova Academy). Throughout the 18th century, Russian courts eagerly embraced European arts; Italian and French ballet masters (such as Gasparo Angiolini, Giuseppe Canziani, and Charles Didelot) were employed in St. Petersburg and Moscow to entertain the Tsar’s court and develop local talent. By the late 18th century, under Catherine the Great, ballet in Russia was well-established at the Imperial Theatres. French choreographer Charles Didelot in particular had great influence: he served as ballet master in St. Petersburg (1801–1837) and introduced the latest in French choreography and stagecraft, even experimenting with early pointework and flying rigs for “airborne” effects in ballets about mythic heroes.
It was in the 19th century, however, that Russia rose to preeminence in ballet. As the Romantic spirit waned in Western Europe, the Imperial Russian Ballet (based in St. Petersburg at the Mariinsky Theatre, and in Moscow at the Bolshoi Theatre) entered its golden age. A succession of French and Italian maîtres de ballet working in Russia – Jules Perrot and Arthur Saint-Léon (both French) in mid-century, and most importantly Marius Petipa (a Frenchman who settled in Russia) – created a distinctive Russian ballet tradition that blended Western technical excellence with Russian theatrical splendor. Marius Petipa, who arrived in St. Petersburg in 1847, ultimately served nearly 60 years at the Mariinsky and is often regarded as the father of classical ballet. Under Petipa’s direction as Chief Choreographer (from 1869), the St. Petersburg ballet produced a series of grand ballets that became the core of the classical repertoire: Don Quixote (1869) and La Bayadère (1877) in his earlier years, and, in collaboration with composer Pyotr Tchaikovsky, the masterpieces The Sleeping Beauty (1890), The Nutcracker (1892, choreographed with his assistant Lev Ivanov), and a definitive revival of Swan Lake (1895). These works were characterized by evening-length scenarios, an emphasis on formal academic technique, and opulent staging befitting the Imperial court. Petipa’s ballets showcased the full development of classical ballet language: demanding pointe work, high leaps and multiple turns, a corps de ballet moving in synchronized patterns, and a structure that often culminated in a spectacular grand pas de deux for the leads. Petipa’s meticulous choreographic plans and musical sense (he worked closely with composers like Tchaikovsky, Delibes, and Minkus) laid the foundation for what is now considered “classical ballet.” Indeed, Petipa’s legacy is such that much of the 19th-century classical ballet performed worldwide today (from The Nutcracker to Sleeping Beauty) descends from his St. Petersburg productions.
Russian ballet in the late 19th century also benefited from the world’s finest training institutions. The Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg (founded 1738) and the Bolshoi Ballet School in Moscow (founded 1773) produced dancers of remarkable prowess thanks to a curriculum that synthesized French, Italian, and native Russian methods. Teachers like Christian Johansson (a Swedish student of Bournonville who taught many Petipa dancers) and Enrico Cecchetti (mentioned earlier, an Italian virtuoso who was ballet master in St. Petersburg) imparted a rigorous technique and versatility. By 1900, Russian ballet was arguably the foremost in the world: the Imperial companies had large rosters of excellently trained dancers, lavish government funding, and a repertoire of both classical warhorses and newer experimental works. In fact, while Petipa’s classicism reigned, there were undercurrents of innovation. Choreographer Michel Fokine, coming of age in the 1900s at the Mariinsky, proposed reforms similar to Noverre’s earlier ideas: more expressive choreography, unity of design, and removal of outdated conventions. Fokine’s ballets Chopiniana (later known as Les Sylphides, 1908) and The Dying Swan solo for Anna Pavlova (1907) hinted at new directions.
These innovations set the stage for an event that would export Russian ballet brilliance to the world: the Ballets Russes. In 1909, the impresario Sergei Diaghilev, a Russian art connoisseur, brought a troupe of leading Imperial dancers (including Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky) to Paris for a “Russian Season.” The Ballets Russes company (though never performing in Russia itself) toured Western Europe and beyond from 1909 to Diaghilev’s death in 1929, and had an outsized influence on ballet’s evolution. Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes astonished audiences with its artistic daring, merging the virtuosity of Russian-trained dancers with avant-garde choreography, music, and design. Diaghilev commissioned new works from young choreographers like Fokine, Nijinsky, Léonide Massine, Bronislava Nijinska, and the young George Balanchine, collaborating with composers such as Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, and Sergei Prokofiev and artists like Léon Bakst, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse. This explosion of creativity produced ballets that broke the mold of Petipa’s classicism: for example, Nijinsky’s The Rite of Spring (1913) shocked with its modernist score and angular choreography; Fokine’s Petrouchka (1911) and Les Sylphides (1909) demonstrated new expressive possibilities; and Balanchine’s early abstract ballets Apollon Musagète (1928) and The Prodigal Son (1929) pointed toward a neoclassical future. The Ballets Russes not only revitalized ballet as a modern art in the West but also sowed the seeds of national ballet companies worldwide. After the Russian Revolution (1917), many dancers of the Imperial troupe left Russia and joined Ballets Russes or its successor companies. This exile of talent, combined with Diaghilev’s global tours, effectively disseminated Russian ballet expertise internationally.
Back in Russia, ballet remained a significant art under the Soviet regime, albeit adapted to fit new ideological purposes. The Imperial theaters were renamed (the Mariinsky became the Kirov Ballet), and the repertory was scrutinized for tsarist or bourgeois content. Yet the Soviet government ultimately supported ballet as a form of cultural prestige (as well as propaganda). Agrippina Vaganova, a former Imperial ballerina, became the chief pedagogue in Leningrad; in 1934, she published Fundamentals of the Classical Dance, codifying the training system now known by her name. The Vaganova method synthesized the virtuosic tricks of the Italians with the purity of the French school and the expressive port de bras of the Russian tradition, producing dancers of formidable technique and emotive capacity. Soviet-era choreographers like Yuri Grigorovich, Leonid Lavrovsky, and Vasily Vainonen created new full-length ballets often based on literary or folk subjects (e.g., Lavrovsky’s Romeo and Juliet, 1940; Grigorovich’s Spartacus, 1968), which emphasized heroic realism in line with state doctrine. During the mid-20th century, Soviet ballet companies (the Bolshoi in Moscow and the Kirov in Leningrad) achieved global renown, touring abroad as cultural ambassadors of the USSR. Their tours in the West – starting with the Bolshoi’s landmark London appearance in 1956 – dazzled audiences and sparked a “ballet boom” by showcasing the Soviet dancers’ superlative technique and dramatic intensity. Star dancers like Galina Ulanova, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov (the latter two eventually defecting to the West) became legendary. The Cold War rivalry inadvertently spurred investment in ballet on both sides: Soviet support remained high, while in the West, ballet companies saw increased popularity and funding, partially in response to the Soviet example.
In the late 20th and 21st centuries, Russian ballet has continued to evolve and also to reconnect with its pre-Soviet heritage. The fall of the Soviet Union allowed greater artistic freedom and exchange. The Mariinsky (Kirov) Ballet and Bolshoi Ballet remain among the world’s leading companies, revered for their grand classical productions and distinct style. They have also embraced more Western contemporary choreographers in recent decades. The Vaganova Academy in St. Petersburg and the Bolshoi Ballet Academy in Moscow continue to produce dancers who dominate international competitions and stages, sustaining Russia’s reputation for excellence. In sum, Russia’s contribution to ballet encompasses the refinement of classical ballet to its highest 19th-century peak (the Petipa era), the revolutionary innovations of the Ballets Russes in the early 20th century, and the preservation of ballet as a cherished cultural institution through tumultuous political changes. The Russian tradition, characterized by a combination of strong academic technique and expressive, dramatic approach, has been exported globally, not least through Russian teachers in exile and the influence of the Vaganova method on ballet training worldwide.
Ballet in England: Establishing a National Tradition
Compared to France, Italy, and Russia, Britain was a late bloomer in developing a distinctive ballet tradition. During the 17th and 18th centuries, London audiences enjoyed ballet mainly as an import in opera-ballets and theatrical pantomimes. Notably, in 1717, John Weaver choreographed The Loves of Mars and Venus in London, which is often cited as an early ballet d’action – a pantomime ballet without spoken dialogue, illustrating that even in England, the ideas of expressive storytelling in dance had taken root. However, through the 1800s, ballet in England was dominated by foreign dancers and companies (the great Romantic ballerinas like Taglioni and Grisi performed in London, often at Her Majesty’s Theatre, and foreign choreographers staged works there). There was no continuous state-sponsored ballet institution as in France or Russia. By the end of the 19th century, Britain still had no permanent national ballet company; ballet was viewed largely as part of opera or music-hall variety programs.
The true birth of British ballet came in the early 20th century, strongly influenced by the Ballets Russes and a few visionary individuals. One of those was Dame Ninette de Valois (born Edris Stannus), an Irish-born ballerina who had briefly danced with Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes in the 1920s. De Valois recognized that for ballet to thrive in Britain, it needed both a native school and company. In 1926, she opened the Academy of Choreographic Art in London and soon began working with theater producer Lilian Baylis. In 1931, de Valois established a resident ballet company at the Sadler’s Wells Theatre (initially called the Vic-Wells Ballet) and an affiliated school. This was the genesis of today’s Royal Ballet. De Valois’ company started modestly, but through the 1930s it built a repertory blending the classical (she staged Giselle and Copéllia, for example) with new works tailored to English themes. She also nurtured choreographic talents, including Frederick Ashton, who became the company’s resident choreographer. By drawing on English literary and musical heritage for ballets like Job (1931) and The Rake’s Progress (1935), and by giving male dancers meaningful roles, de Valois crafted a uniquely English ballet style and repertoire. This development was accelerated by another émigré from the Ballets Russes: Marie Rambert (Polish-born), who founded Ballet Rambert in 1926 in London as a tiny company devoted to new choreography. Ashton got his start with Rambert’s group before joining de Valois. Thus, by World War II, Britain had two small but vibrant ballet companies.
After WWII, British ballet entered the international stage. In 1949, de Valois’ company (by then named the Sadler’s Wells Ballet) toured the U.S. to great acclaim, demonstrating that an English-trained troupe could rival the established ballet powers. In 1956, the Sadler’s Wells Ballet received a royal charter and officially became The Royal Ballet, with de Valois as director. The Royal Ballet and its school (the Royal Ballet School) have since become one of the foremost ballet institutions, known for a polished style that marries rigorous classical technique with a refined, lyrical musicality often said to reflect British restraint and wit. Ashton’s choreography – including Symphonic Variations (1946), La Fille mal gardée (1960, his reimagining of the old French ballet), and Marguerite and Armand (1963) – defined the “English style,” characterized by purity of line, sensitive musical phrasing, and understated emotion. Another major British choreographer, Kenneth MacMillan, succeeded Ashton as director in the 1970s and contributed a series of dramatic ballets (like Romeo and Juliet (1965) and Mayerling (1978)) that tackled intense psychological themes, reflecting a broader shift in ballet towards contemporary realism. Throughout, the Royal Ballet maintained a balance of classic repertory and new creations, fostering homegrown stars such as Margot Fonteyn (whose legendary partnership with Soviet defector Rudolf Nureyev in the 1960s was a cultural milestone).
It is worth noting that Britain’s ballet tradition also broadened beyond the Royal Ballet. Ballet Rambert evolved (under Rambert and later Norman Morrice) into today’s Rambert Dance Company, shifting focus to modern dance in the 1960s. Another key institution is the Birmingham Royal Ballet (formerly Sadler’s Wells Theatre Ballet, the sister company to the Royal Ballet), which, under figures like Peter Wright, developed its own profile. English National Ballet (founded in 1950 by Anton Dolin and Alicia Markova, both former Ballets Russes dancers) became known for touring classical ballets across Britain. Collectively, these companies helped popularize ballet in British society. Sociopolitically, the establishment of British ballet coincided with an awakening of national cultural identity between the wars and after WWII – having a Royal Ballet was a matter of prestige and an assertion of cultural maturity. British ballet also exemplified how an art form imported from the Continent could be naturalized and supported by public funding (through the Arts Council from 1946 onward).
British ballet’s trademarks include strong literary storytelling, a respect for tradition (the Royal Ballet continues to stage the classics in their inherited versions), and a tendency toward innovative choreography that remains within a classical idiom. The major schools – especially the Royal Ballet School – were heavily influenced by the Cecchetti method early on (Ninette de Valois herself studied with Enrico Cecchetti ). Over time, the British training style incorporated elements of Russian and French technique, but it retains an emphasis on elegant port de bras and finely detailed footwork. Today, British ballet stands as one of the major regional traditions, producing internationally renowned dancers and choreographers, and its institutions, like the Royal Ballet, are integral to the global ballet network.
Ballet in the United States: From Imported Art to Homegrown Innovation
Ballet in the United States began as a transplanted European art, but by the mid-20th century, the U.S. had developed its own vibrant ballet culture and aesthetics. In colonial and 19th-century America, ballet performances were given by touring European dancers or included in theatrical productions, but there was little indigenous ballet activity. The earliest recorded ballet performance in North America is often noted as 1735 in Charleston, when a touring English troupe included ballet interludes. Throughout the 1800s, major European ballerinas like Fanny Elssler and Adelina Patti toured American cities, generating popular fascination but leaving no permanent institutions. In the late 19th century, a few American-born dancers (e.g., Augusta Maywood, Mary Ann Lee) trained in Europe and attempted to stage ballets in the U.S., but these efforts were short-lived. Ballet remained overshadowed by social dance, vaudeville, and musical theatre on the American stage.
It was the influx of émigré talent in the 20th century, especially with the Ballets Russes tours, that truly ignited American ballet. Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes itself never toured the U.S., but after Diaghilev’s death, successor companies did. Notably, the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo – a company formed by former Ballets Russes members – toured extensively in the United States from the 1930s through the 1950s. This company and other spin-offs (Original Ballet Russe, etc.) barnstormed across America, bringing full-scale productions of Swan Lake, Giselle, and new works to towns that had never seen professional ballet. They effectively educated the first generation of American audiences and even dancers – some Americans joined these touring troupes. One important figure was Alexandra Danilova, a Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo star ballerina who settled in the U.S. and later taught at the School of American Ballet. Danilova and others like her carried the classical Russian and Diaghilev repertory traditions into American ballet training.
Meanwhile, individual visionaries were laying the groundwork for American companies. The most influential was George Balanchine, a Russian-trained choreographer who had been ballet master of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes in its final years. In 1933, Balanchine was invited to America by arts patron Lincoln Kirstein. Together, they founded the School of American Ballet in 1934 in New York City, with the aim of creating a uniquely American ballet company and style. Balanchine famously declared, “But first, a school,” emphasizing the need to train dancers in the style he envisioned. After a few short-lived attempts, Balanchine and Kirstein succeeded in forming the New York City Ballet in 1948 as a permanent company at New York’s City Center. Balanchine would become known as the father of American ballet, and the neoclassical style he developed redefined ballet in the 20th century. Balanchine’s choreography, starting with works like Serenade (1934) and expanding to a vast repertoire (including The Four Temperaments (1946), Concerto Barocco (1941), Agon (1957), and the full-length Jewels (1967)), was characterized by abstract or plotless dancing, streamlined costumes (often just leotards and tights), and an emphasis on musicality and speed. He eliminated much of the pantomime and heavy dramatic veneer of earlier ballets, instead letting “dance be the star of the show.” This neoclassicism was in part a reaction against what Balanchine saw as the overly theatrical late-Romantic European ballets. His works demanded a very high level of technique, notably, very fast footwork, long extensions, and a strong attack, which became hallmarks of the “American” style. Through Balanchine’s prominence (the New York City Ballet quickly became one of the world’s leading companies), the U.S. introduced a fresh choreographic voice to ballet’s global discourse.
Concurrently, another major company was formed: American Ballet Theatre (ABT), founded in 1939 (originally as Ballet Theatre). ABT, with Lucia Chase and Richard Pleasant as early directors, took a different approach – serving as a “museum” of ballet by assembling a diverse repertory of classical and new works from various choreographers and national styles. They staged classics like Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty (often in versions staged by imported Russian ballet masters), but also commissioned works from emerging American choreographers like Agnes de Mille (Rodeo, 1942) and Antony Tudor (an Englishman who moved to the U.S., known for his psychological ballets like Pillar of Fire, 1942). This gave ABT a well-rounded profile and helped cultivate American narrative ballet. Over time, ABT became renowned for its roster of international star dancers and its preservation of the full-length 19th-century ballets, complementing New York City Ballet’s emphasis on Balanchine works.
Throughout the mid-20th century, ballet in America grew rapidly. Dozens of regional companies sprouted in cities across the country (e.g., San Francisco Ballet, which actually started earlier in 1933 on the West Coast, and the Joffrey Ballet, founded in 1956 with a more eclectic, modern approach). Ballet became part of American cultural diplomacy as well, especially during the Cold War – for instance, tours of American companies abroad were seen as showcasing Western artistic freedom, in contrast to Soviet troupes showcasing socialist culture. Conversely, defections of Soviet dancers like Nureyev (1961) and Baryshnikov (1974) to the West galvanized American audiences and invigorated companies (Baryshnikov even became artistic director of ABT in the 1980s).
By the end of the 20th century, the United States had firmly established itself as a major center of ballet creativity and performance. A distinctive American ballet identity emerged, often described as more athletic, fast, and “modern” in energy than its European counterparts – a reflection of Balanchine’s legacy and the melting-pot nature of American dance training. American choreographers of subsequent generations, such as Jerome Robbins (who straddled Broadway and ballet, choreographing both West Side Story and ballets like Dances at a Gathering), and later Twyla Tharp, William Forsythe (an American who spent much of his career in Germany, deconstructing classical technique), and others, further pushed ballet’s boundaries. The sociopolitical openness of American culture also allowed ballet to intersect with issues of race and identity; for example, Arthur Mitchell, a Black New York City Ballet principal in the 1960s, founded the Dance Theatre of Harlem in 1969 to offer Black dancers opportunities in classical ballet, challenging the traditional racial homogeneity of the art. By embracing both tradition (the canon of Petipa, Fokine, etc.) and innovation (new works mixing ballet with modern dance or contemporary subjects), American ballet companies helped ballet evolve in the late 20th century as a living, adaptive art form. Major U.S. institutions like the School of American Ballet and the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis School (at ABT) now train dancers from around the world, demonstrating the globalization of a form once imported to American shores.
Other Traditions and the Globalization of Ballet
While France, Russia, Italy, England, and the United States represent major ballet traditions, many other regions have made important contributions, especially as ballet expanded globally in the 20th and 21st centuries. In Denmark, for instance, a strong ballet lineage was established in the 19th century under August Bournonville. The Royal Danish Ballet (founded in 1748 in Copenhagen) became renowned for Bournonville’s choreographies and teaching method, which emphasized graceful épaulement and quick, intricate footwork. Bournonville preserved the Romantic style well into the late 19th century in Denmark – La Sylphide (1836) is a Danish treasure – and crucially, he maintained the prominence of the male dancer in an era when other countries sidelined them. This meant the Danish male dancer’s tradition remained strong, yielding virtuosi like Harald Lander in the 20th century. The Bournonville technique is still a distinct school within ballet, highlighting national diversity within the art.
Elsewhere in Europe, countries like Spain, Sweden, and Germany each interfaced with ballet in unique ways. Spain, with its rich dance heritage, saw occasional bursts of ballet activity (the Ballets Russes famously premiered Three-Cornered Hat in Spain in 1919), and produced noteworthy figures such as choreographer Bronislava Nijinska (Polish-born but worked across Europe, including Spain) and performers like Antonia Mercé “La Argentina” who fused ballet with Spanish dance. Germany had a strong tradition of theatrical dance – although early 20th-century Germany leaned more toward Ausdruckstanz (Expressionist dance) pioneers like Mary Wigman, the country later embraced ballet through figures like John Cranko, who built the Stuttgart Ballet into an international force in the 1960s with a new style of narrative ballet.
In the 20th century, ballet truly became a global art. After World War II, many countries that had little historical connection to ballet established their own national companies, often aided by experts from established schools. For example, the National Ballet of Canada was founded in 1951 by British dancer Celia Franca, and today it ranks among the top companies. Cuba developed a world-class ballet tradition after Alicia Alonso founded the Ballet Nacional de Cuba in 1948; despite limited resources, Cuban ballet training (influenced by Russian methodology) became renowned for producing dancers of exceptional virtuosity, and Cuban dancers frequently win international competitions. Japan and China saw ballet introduced in the mid-20th century: the Beijing Dance Academy was established in 1954 with Soviet assistance, and China’s first full-length ballet, The Red Detachment of Women (1964), creatively blended revolutionary propaganda with classical form. Following the Cultural Revolution, Chinese ballet has flourished, and Chinese dancers now populate major companies worldwide. Japan’s first notable ballet company was founded by Mikiko Matsuyama in 1946, and today, Tokyo has several companies, and ballet has a large following. Similar growth can be traced in Australia (where the Ballets Russes tours of the 1930s sparked interest and led to the formation of the Australian Ballet in 1962) and across South America, where countries like Argentina (Teatro Colón Ballet) and Brazil (Teatro Municipal Ballet in Rio) have longstanding ballet scenes.
A major aspect of late-20th-century ballet was its globalization, not just geographically but also stylistically. Dancers and choreographers became increasingly itinerant, leading to a cross-pollination of styles. By the early 21st century, ballet had become a genuinely global art form – its artists, repertoire, and audiences span all continents. Dancers from Asia, Latin America, and Africa now join European and American companies in significant numbers, bringing diverse cultural perspectives. This has broadened ballet’s aesthetic and thematic range. Many 21st-century ballets incorporate multicultural elements or address contemporary social issues, reflecting the worldliness of the art. Choreographers today are internationally mobile: one might see a British choreographer creating a ballet for a Chinese company, or a Russian choreographer working in South Africa, etc. The result is a global ballet repertoire that mixes the classical canon, 20th-century masterpieces, and new works that fuse genres and cultural motifs.
Technically and stylistically, ballet in the contemporary era is extremely diverse. Some choreographers continue the classical narrative tradition with fresh stories or literary adaptations; others pursue abstract, purely movement-oriented works. The influence of modern dance and other movement disciplines has led to what is often called contemporary ballet: a style blending ballet’s technique (pointe work, line, turnout) with greater torso movement, floorwork, or non-traditional music and staging. Pioneers of this blend include Jiří Kylián, William Forsythe, and Ohad Naharin, who challenged classical conventions and expanded ballet’s vocabulary in the late 20th century. Forsythe, for example, deconstructed ballet’s academic shapes into angular, fractured motions, yet within the context of ballet companies. Meanwhile, other choreographers have brought ballet into contact with popular culture and multimedia, from the rock-infused ballets of the 1970s to digital age collaborations.
The sociopolitical landscape of contemporary ballet reflects both its aristocratic heritage and its efforts to remain relevant in modern society. Issues of inclusivity and body image, for instance, are being actively discussed: ballet companies are slowly diversifying their ranks and repertory, commissioning works from choreographers of various genders and ethnic backgrounds, and re-examining stereotyped portrayals in old ballets. The global audience for ballet has also grown through cinema livecasts and online streaming of performances, making the art more accessible than ever.
In summary, the 21st-century ballet world is one of dynamic transformation underpinned by tradition. Ballet’s classical technique and repertoire, codified over centuries as detailed in this historical survey, continue to be a unifying thread that connects a performance in, say, Seoul with one in Paris. Yet ballet is also constantly reinventing itself, assimilating global influences. As one dance scholar notes, “in the early 21st century, ballet has become a global and contemporary dance genre that mirrors the world through its artists and choreography”. Dancers now routinely cross borders to work, and companies from San Francisco to Johannesburg to St. Petersburg share both dancers and choreographic works. This globalization means that regional styles – once quite distinct (French softness, Italian virtuosity, Russian lyricism, English refinement, American speed) – have started to blend, as companies strive to excel in the same international repertoire. Even so, the major schools and institutions maintain their legacies: the Paris Opera Ballet upholding French elegance since the 17th century, the Vaganova Academy and Bolshoi School perpetuating Russian virtuosity, the Royal Ballet School carrying forward the English style, La Scala’s academy in Italy reviving Italian traditions, and newer hubs from Toronto to Havana to Melbourne forging their own hybrid identities. Ballet’s journey from Renaissance courts to a global stage is a testament to its adaptability and enduring appeal. The art form has continually reflected and absorbed the sociopolitical currents around it – from absolutist monarchy to revolutionary fervor, from imperial patronage to Cold War cultural diplomacy, and from strict classical formulas to postmodern experimentation. Today’s ballet, in its myriad forms worldwide, stands as both an inheritance of a rich history and a living, evolving art shaped by the contemporary world.
References
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- Britannica, Encyclopaedia. “Ninette de Valois.” Britannica Online.
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